Within which of the following frames did the old social movements fun…

The correct answer is Option (2) → Political parties

Option (1) Voluntary organisations — Incorrect. Voluntary organisations are groups that people join by choice to work on a cause. The old movements were not run through such groups. They were led by political parties.

Option (2) Political parties — Correct. The old social movements worked within the frame of political parties. The Indian National Congress led the Indian National Movement, and the Communist Party of China led the Chinese Revolution.

Option (3) Caste associations — Incorrect. Caste associations bring together people of one caste to press that caste's claims. The old movements were class-based and aimed to reorganise power relations, so parties were their frame.

Option (4) Social movement organisations — Incorrect. Social movement organisations are what a movement may become later in its life cycle, when mass protest turns more institutionalised. The term names a later stage of a movement, so it does not describe how the old movements worked.