The Buddha emphasised which of the following as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana?

Both 1 and 2

The Buddha placed great importance on individual empowerment and virtuous conduct as the path to break free from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realization and nibbana - the extinguishing of ego and desire. By achieving this state, one could put an end to the cycle of suffering, especially for those who chose a life of renunciation.

In accordance with Buddhist tradition, the Buddha's final message to his followers was profound: "Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation." This call for self-reliance and personal responsibility underscored the notion that each individual holds the key to their own spiritual liberation.