Indian independence in 1947 marked a big, but ultimately only partial break with the colonial past. Caste considerations had inevitably played a role in the mass mobilisations of the nationalist movement. Efforts to organise the “depressed classes” and particularly the untouchable castes predated the nationalist movement, having begun in the second half of the nineteenth century. This was an initiative taken from both ends of the caste spectrum – by upper caste progressive reformers as well as by members of the lower castes such as Mahatma Jotiba Phule and Babasaheb Ambedkar in western India, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru, Iyotheedass and Periyar (E.V. Ramaswamy Naickar) in the South. Both Mahatma Gandhi and Babasaheb Ambedkar began organising protests against untouchability from the 1920s onwards. Anti-untouchability programmes became a significant part of the 40 Congress agenda so that, by the time Independence was on the horizon, there was a broad agreement across the spectrum of the nationalist movement to abolish caste distinctions. The dominant view in the nationalist movement was to treat caste as a social evil and as a colonial ploy to divide Indians. But the nationalist leaders, above all, Mahatma Gandhi, were able to simultaneously work for the upliftment of the lower castes, advocate the abolition of untouchability and other caste restrictions, and, at the same time, reassure the landowning upper castes that their interests, too, would be looked after.

Consider the following statements.

Statement I: Endogamy was one aspect of the caste system that remained largely unaffected by modernisation.

Statement II: Inter-caste marriages became the dominant form of marriage after Independence.

Choose the correct answer.

Statement I is correct, but Statement II is incorrect.

The correct answer is Option 1: Statement I is correct, but Statement II is incorrect.

Statement I:Endogamy was one aspect of the caste system that remained largely unaffected by modernisation. Correct. Endogamy, or marrying within one's own caste, continued to be a dominant feature of Indian society. Despite social and economic changes, caste boundaries in marriage largely persisted.

Statement II:Inter-caste marriages became the dominant form of marriage after Independence. Incorrect. While inter-caste marriages have increased over time, most marriages continue to take place within caste boundaries. The word "dominant" makes the statement incorrect.