Which of the following reasons continue to inhibit upward social mobility of the Dalits?

landlessness

The correct answer is Option (1) → landlessness

Land ownership is a crucial indicator of wealth, status, and social security in rural India. Historically, Dalits were denied the right to own land and were relegated to the status of landless laborers or bonded laborers for dominant caste landowners. This historical disadvantage continues to have a significant impact today.

In contrast, the other options are generally considered facilitators of social mobility. Rapid urbanisation offers new economic opportunities and can reduce the rigidities of the caste system. The right to education and SC reservations are government policies specifically designed to create avenues for upward mobility and counteract historical inequalities.