What are the main issues behind the political assertion of tribals in modern India ?

Control and rights over forests and other resources and isues of cultural and ethnic identity.

The correct answer is Option 1: Control and rights over forests and other resources and issues of cultural and ethnic identity.

Option 1: Control and rights over forests and other resources and issues of cultural and ethnic identity. Correct. Tribal political movements have largely focused on securing rights over forests, land and natural resources while preserving their distinct cultural and ethnic identity. These issues continue to be central to tribal mobilisation.

Option 2: Expansion of industrial employment and integration into urban society. Incorrect. Although industrialisation has affected tribal communities, the primary concern of tribal political movements has not been the expansion of industrial employment. Their focus has been on protecting traditional resources, livelihoods and identity.

Option 3: Demand for higher ritual status within the traditional social hierarchy. Incorrect. Unlike many caste-based movements, tribal political assertion has not centred on improving ritual status within the caste hierarchy. Instead, it has focused on issues of autonomy, resource rights and cultural identity.

Option 4: Replacement of customary tribal institutions with modern religious organisations. Incorrect. Tribal movements have generally sought to preserve their distinct cultural traditions and institutions rather than replace them with modern religious organisations.