What mode of communication and trade is suggested by the references t…

Recent archaeological discoveries indicate that copper was likely obtained from Oman, located on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Through chemical analysis, traces of nickel have been found in both Omani copper and Harappan artifacts, suggesting a shared origin. Additional evidence of contact between the two regions includes the presence of a distinct type of vessel known as a large Harappan jar with a thick layer of black clay coating. These coatings were designed to prevent liquid percolation, although the specific contents of these vessels remain unknown. It is plausible that the Harappans engaged in trade, potentially exchanging the contents of these vessels for Omani copper.

Ancient Mesopotamian texts from the third millennium BCE mention copper originating from a region referred to as Magan, which is believed to be Oman. Interestingly, copper found at Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel. Other archaeological findings suggestive of long-distance contacts include Harappan seals, weights, dice, and beads. Notably, Mesopotamian texts mention interactions with regions named Dilmun (likely the island of Bahrain), Magan, and Meluhha, possibly referring to the Harappan region. These texts also mention various products from Meluhha, such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and different types of wood. Within Mesopotamian mythology, there is a reference to Meluhha and a bird known as the haja-bird, whose call is to be heard in the royal palace. Some archaeologists speculate that the haja-bird could be the peacock, potentially deriving its name from its distinctive call. It is highly likely that communication and trade between the Harappans, Oman, Bahrain, and Mesopotamia occurred primarily through maritime routes, as suggested by references to Meluhha as a land of seafarers in Mesopotamian texts. Furthermore, depictions of ships and boats on seals further support the notion of maritime connections.