Land grants offer insights into the relationship between cultivators and the state. What groups of people were often beyond the reach of officials or samantas?

1) Artisans and traders
2) Brahmanas and priests
3) Pastoralists and hunter-gatherers
4) Foreign merchants and traders

Choose the correct answer from the given options:

3

Historians hold differing viewpoints on the impact of land grants. Some argue that they were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages to expand agriculture into new territories. On the other hand, some believe that land grants indicate a decline in political power, as kings sought to gain allies by granting land to others when losing control over their samantas (feudal lords). It is suggested that, as a façade of power, kings attempted to present themselves as supermen, particularly as their control was waning.

While land grants shed light on the relationship between cultivators and the state, certain groups, such as pastoralists, fisherfolk, hunter-gatherers, mobile or semi-sedentary artisans, and shifting cultivators, were often beyond the reach of officials or samantas. These groups did not maintain detailed records of their lives and transactions, which makes understanding their historical context more challenging.